Victorian England and Natural History

Victorian England and Natural History Victorian society is a time characterized by the rule of Queen Victoria in England, during the years 1837 to 1901. In the years leading up to it, ideas surrounding natural history began changing, and they were brought to a head by scholars in Victorian times. With more discoveries of fossils, interest in natural history and dinosaurs increased. Scientific study of dinosaurs and the history of the world increased and began to be a true avenue of research and discovery. Before the Victorian era, there were many beliefs that were held. Through scientific discovery these beliefs were tested and changed. Science and natural history gained popularity throughout the Victorian era and led to changing beliefs of the society as a whole, when scientific discoveries contradicted established beliefs. Before Darwin and the theory of natural history, religious beliefs were considered to be the natural order of things. Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth century, religious beliefs needed to be reconciled with nature so that natural theology could be studied. In general, the natural world was understood through the Bible and was built upon faith rather than science (Thompson, 2008). Science is different from faith, because it has no connection to the upper power. It searches for the truth and begets change, which threatens religious beliefs. There were Christian beliefs that were accepted as truth, including a greater chain of being, a young Earth, and species are immutable (Thompson, 2008). All of these beliefs were tested by scientific discoveries of the Victorian era. Another important scientific creation pre-Victorian England was that in the eighteenth century, Linnaeus created a system for classifying the natural world. This system showed a transition from an ignorant, uns tructured view of the past to a way of understanding species in relation to each other (Ritvo, 1997). By the Victorian period, classification was necessary to the understanding of natural history and Linnaeuss method was generally accepted as the nomenclature that would be used. While the system of taxonomy did have some inconsistencies and ambiguous rules, it persisted and was used in practice when naming new species. Victorian England was characterized by a growing industrial economy and a growing and valued middle class. According to James Camerini, in his essay Early Victorians in the Field, the culture of early Victorian natural history was shaped by, and in turn shaped, the larger culture (Camerini, 1997). With the growing working and middle class people, the pursuits of science were made possible. There was a growing commercial trade in natural history specimens and the information was made easier to access. According to Harriet Ritvo, The global expansion of European influence in the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries, whether by means of conquest, politics, or trade, was both mirrored and expedited by the efforts of knowledge workers (Ritvo, 1997). With more globalization, Early Victorian researchers, such as Charles Darwin and Henry Huxley, were able to travel with the navy on expeditions and collect specimens of species from around the world (Camerini, 1997). Natural histo ry was becoming a hobby of the masses as well as the scientists who specialized in it. In the chapter, Natural History and the Victorian Tourist: Form Landscapes to Rock-Pools, Aileen Fyfe studied the connection between science and Victorian Tourism. Before the Victorian era, travel and tourism was only for the aristocracy, because no one else had the money or the vacation time to travel, which could last from a few months to years (Fyfe, 2011). In the second half of the nineteenth century, there was a change in domestic tourism in England, when the working class were gaining leisure time and railways made travel easier and faster (Fyfe, 2011). With more tourists, the activities tourists could do changed and expanded, including interest in natural history. They were able to collect rocks, fossils, animals, plants that they sent back to England and these experiences led to their future research and discoveries. One of the most contested discoveries of the Victorian era is the theory of natural selection. Charles Darwin wrote about and described this theory in his book, On the origin of species by means of natural selection. Darwin lays out his argument explaining that there is variation of species around the world because of the struggle for existence that all organisms are faced with. Natural selection is therefore acting in the good of each being, leading to the success of the species that is best suited for its environment (Darwin, 1859). Species are not permanent and can adapt to survive in their environment. According to Charles Darwin, One general law, leading to the advancement of all organic beings, namely, multiply, vary, let the strongest live and the weakest die. (Darwin, 1859). His theory of natural selection contradicted many beliefs that were held at the time and revolutionized the species concept and it allowed for the theory of evolution. Evolution is the belief that species change throughout time and all living organisms evolved from the simplest forms of life. There were many objections to Darwins theory at the time of its release. Natural selection contradicted many beliefs that were held at the time, such as a great chain of being, the Earth was young, and that species do not change and are permanent states. Some argued against Darwins theory. In an article published in the Spectator, the writer intended to show how the broad facts of geology are directly opposed to natural selection (Objections, 1860). The writer argues that species have been constant for thousands of years, and as such they would never change no matter how much time goes by. Instead of natural selection, the article references creation as the source of changes in conditions and what allows old species to disappear and new species to form (Objections, 1860). Before 1859, creationism, or the belief that all organisms living originated from a single creation moment particularly of divine nature, was the common belief. Victorian England was a primarily Christian society, a nd many beliefs were rooted in religious beliefs, before scientific discoveries proved them wrong. The article mentions the fauna of the Mesozoic period, especially the reptiles from that By the end of the Victorian period there were two major versions of evolutionary biology: Lamarckism and Darwinism. While mostly accepted by scientists today, Darwinism was highly contended when it came out, with Lamarckian beliefs being the most influential competitor (Fichman, 1997). Lamarck was the first to come up with an idea of species change, known as: the theory of acquired characteristics. Progressionism was the center of Lamarkism, since traits were acquired by an animals intentional actions and that trait could be inherited by future generations (Fichman, 1997). Organisms would therefore always be changing in response to their environment to become better suited for it. When the theory of evolution by natural selection came out, it also suggested progressionism. Instead of acquired characteristics, Darwin and Wallace believed in the appearance of random variations in nature, which were then sorted by natural selection based on whether the variation assists a species or not . The traits were inheritable, not acquired. Without the knowledge of genetics and mutations of genes, Lamarkism seemed more plausible, which allowed that theory to maintain its popularity and be discussed throughout the Victorian period (Fichman, 1997). In the 1870s and 1880s, Darwinism, the belief in Darwins theory of natural selection, was growing in influence. This lead to the theory of evolution needing to reconciled with Christian doctrine. For example, Reverend Thomas Roscoe Rede Stebbing wrote on Darwinism, natural history, and theology, including Essays on Darwinism published in 1871, and his religious beliefs changed to be consistent with the logic of science, but its roots were transcendental, emanating from a god of love and unselfishness' (Beckett, 2011). He used Darwinism to explain the origin of human morality as well as some tenets of the church. Religious beliefs needed to be altered and texts needed to be interpreted differently so that they could be reconciled with the discoveries of science, such as evolution. After Darwin, the shift of study went from collecting to identifying types, with a growing interest in conservation nature. The study of natural history at the time was very much tied together with other studies such as antiquarian and archaeological investigation, and there was never any clear distinction. The link between these studies was also tied with religion, because they looked at history as a combination of nature and human history. History before man, or at least before man left records, was the history of nature (Beckett, 2011). The focus of natural history studies was collecting and classifying throughout the nineteenth century. By the Victorian time period in England, popular interest in the geology and landscape was wide spread. Both amateurs and professionals were interested in the natural sciences, and began looking at, collecting and studying plants, animals, rock and fossils. In the Victorian era, there was an increase in interest and understanding of animals from the past, including dinosaurs and their reptile relatives. In the year 1841, Richard Owen was the man to define the category of large terrestrial reptiles, that he called Dinosauria. He focused his research on paleontology, and worked on new species as they emerged. This group was known for having an open acetabulum in the pelvis. When these fossils were first found, there was the belief by members of the church that the fossils were created by God as fossils and that the beings were never alive. Palaentology though shows who life and death have gone on for thousands of years and in many different forms (Owen, 1860). Owen separated the Paleozoic into three periods, where different groups of animals dominated the landscape: the first by the fish, the second by the reptiles, and the third by the mammals (Owen, 1860). Even so, he believed the differences were not necessarily chronological changes b ut geographical ones, since the different periods were seen in different locations. Owen quotes Cuviers theories of that no parts of an organism without also changing other parts (Owen, 1860). Owen did not believe in Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection. Tracing species back in time is a way to understand the way the earth was at that time. Owen did predict that Archeopteryx was a bird-like species, but made predictions about the face including that the mouth was devoid of lips, and was a beak-like instrument which was proven incorrect with the discover of other forms (Owen, 1863). Owen revolutionized the study of fossils but was incorrect in his believes regarding evolution. While he did not know that modern birds are the descendants of theropod dinosaurs, he did believe that bird forms would have been founded as old as the Triassic. Owen wrote, No actual remains of birds have been found in any deposit older than the chalk, yet their their existence long ages previous to this is certified to us by footprints in the sandstones of the Triassic or Liassic period, which cannot by any possibility have been made by any other animals (Owen, 1860). Owen would not have believed though that the modern bird forms were at all related to non-avian dinosaur forms. Henry Woodward also talked about the scarcity of avian fossils. He mentioned that it was believed that birds were around in the Jurassic due to the footprints, which is Owens prediction from 25 years prior, but he now argues that the tracks may have been left by Dinosaurian reptiles, which have a tridactyle hind-foot like a bird (Woodward, 1885). With new data and analysis, Woodward was able to adapt Owens t heory and get closer to the truth. He also did this with reconstructions of the Iguanodon, which originally discovered in 1825 and he talks about a previous interpretation done by a Waterhouse Hawkins and Richard Owen. The problem with the first reconstruction was the lack of knowledge and bones that were present for analysis with a discovery from 1878, which included multiple complete skeletons, they were able to reanalyze the bones and understand the specimen better (Woodward, 1895). Scientific discoveries throughout the Victorian era led to theories and predictions, which were either confirmed or denied with more research, as is the case with all hypotheses. Ideas from biology were not just being adopted by scientists and were also being used and translated to be used politically in the changing times of the Victorian period, due to their growing popularity. In 1883, Francis Galton termed eugenics. He believed that races of mankind could be ranked by how many individuals with high natural ability which he defined as intellectual capacity, eagerness for work, and power of doing superior work were born per generation (Fichman, 1997). When an inferior race came into contact with a superior one, it would be wiped away by the superior race. Eugenics was using Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection. Even so, it really was just a conservative aristocratic view of the world, which Galton attempted to use to create programs to limit the options of the inferior races. Huxley also played a large part in the connections between biology and politics. He worked to distance the ideas of evolution from ethical policies and sociopolitical disp utes by discrediting the belief that nature is moral (Fichman, 1997). In Victorian England, scientists, such as Huxley, Tyndall, Leslie Stephen, and John Morley, were able to create a largely secular climate of opinion in which the theories and metaphors of modern science penetrated the institutions of education, industry and government (Fichman, 1997). They worked toward social and material progress which would also advance science and technology, drawing the the attention of the all people. By the 1840s, scientific world was a modern professional community, with the professional scientist status rising (Fichman, 1997). This meant that evolutionary biology was becoming more well-known, even outside of the scientific community. Biology and science was on the forefront of politics and peoples mind. Since natural history gained popularity throughout the Victorian era among all people, the issues that were brought up by scientific discoveries and theories were discussed by all. Darwin in particular caused controversy in Victorian society, because the theory of evolution by natural selection shook the faith of the primarily Christian communities in England. Even though there were scientific theories before Darwin, his book was a turning point in understanding the world through religious beliefs and ideals. Science was in pursuit of the rules of nature, and while religion seemed to have already established them, new discoveries contradicted the ideas that most people prescribed to, such as a young Earth and immutable species. A growing interest in scientific theories and a decline in religion started in the Victorian era, with theories that began it prove religious beliefs to be incorrect. References: Beckett, J., Watkins, C. (2011). Natural History and Local History in Late Victorian and Edwardian England: The Contribution of the Victoria County History. Rural History, 22(01), 59-87. Camerini, J. (Ed.). (1997). Early Victorians in the Field. In B. Lightman (Ed.), Victorian Science in Context (pp. 354-377). London: The University of Chicago Press. Darwin, C., MA. (1859). On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favored races in the struggle for life. London: W. Clowes and Sons. Fichman, M. V. (1997). Biology and Politics: Defining the Boundaries. In B. V. Lightman (Ed.), Victorian science in context (pp. 94-118). London: University of Chicago Press. Fyfe, A. (2011). Natural History and the Victorian Tourist: From Landscapes to Rock-Pools. In C. W. Withers D. N. Livingstone (Eds.), Geographies of Nineteeth-Century Science (pp. 371-398). London: The University of Chicago Press. Objections to Mr. Darwins theory of the Origin of Species. (1860, April 7). The Spectator, pp. 334-335. Retrieved March 20, 2017. Owen, R. (1860). Palaeontology or A systematic summary of extinct animals and their geological relations. The British quarterly review, 32(63), 179-202. Owen, R. (1863). On the Archaeopteryc of von Meyer, with a description of the fossil remains of a long-tailed species, from the lithographic stone of Solenhofen. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 153, 33-47. Retrieved March 22, 2017. Ritvo, H. (1997). Zoological Nomenclature and the Empire of Victorian Science. In B. Lightman (Ed.), Victorian Science in Context (pp. 334-353). London: The University of Chicago Press. Thomson, K. S. (2008). Before Darwin: reconciling God and nature. New Haven: Yale University Press. Woodward, H. (1885). VI.-On Wingless Birds, Fossil and Recent; and a Few Words on Birds as a Class. Geological Magazine, 2(07), 308. Woodward, H. (1895). I.-Note on the Reconstruction of Iguanodon in the British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Road. Geological Magazine, 2(07), 289.

Ballistic Missile Defense Essay -- American Government, Nuclear Arsena

INTRODUCTION Today we live in a time where developing countries and terrorist organizations are vying for world power. A common way this is attempted is through the attainment of nuclear arms and delivery systems for them namely Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM). Many of these countries are hostel to the United States and her allies. Also the existence counties with large nuclear arsenals such as Russia, increase the chance of an accidental launch. In order to counter threats form rouge nations and accidental ballistic missile launches, the United States should pursue development of a missile defense system. COLD WAR AND THE ABM TREATY The first ICBM, The R-7, was developed by the Soviet Union in 1953 (Korolev). After this event, both the Soviet Union and the United States started to develop and deploy increasingly powerful and accurate ICBMs. This build up of powerful weapons caused an escalation in tension between the U.S. and the USSR, both expecting an attack at anytime. The potential destructive force the weapons had and the high tension environment led to the theory of MAD or mutually assured destruction to come into existence. This theory works on the principle â€Å"that deterrence against a nuclear attack was to be maintained through the ability of each side to inflict an unacceptable degree of damage† (Lettow 22). MAD is the thing that kept nuclear Armageddon form occurring during the Cold War as both sides new that if they launched an all out attack, the other side would as well, destroying both. MAD relies on an equal balance of force, so that no one country feels like they could come out ahead in a nuclear war. Many top strategic experts were concerned that ABM systems could destabilize this delicate ... ...3). Although this is not a small amount it is a large improvement over the 1.2 trillion dollars required for a SDI scale project. The benefits conferred by this kind of plan: protection against small scale ICBM attacks and TBM attacks is worth the price. â€Å"The ultimate goal of missile defense is to convince countries that ballistic missiles are not militarily useful or a worthy investment and placed doubt in the minds of potential aggressors that a ballistic missile attack against the United States or its allies can succeed† (Missile Defense Agency). This form of missile defense would act as a deterrent to those countries to whom MAD does not apply. Countries hostile to the U.S. would be discouraged from attempting to use ballistic missiles against the U.S. in any first strike or strategic ways as it would provide no tactical advantage(Kaufman 116).

Mongolian Armies :: essays research papers

The Mongols were nomadic herders and hunters who spent their lives in the saddles of their steppe ponies. They learned to ride and use weapons, especially the composite bow, at an early age. For hunting and war, every able-bodied male under the age of 60 years was expected to take part. The armies of the united Mongol tribes consisted of the entire adult male population. They fought under a strict code of discipline. Booty was held collectively. The penalty was death for abandoning a comrade in battle. This discipline, together with leadership, intelligence-gathering, and organization, raised the Mongol force from a cavalry swarm into a true army. The Mongol army was organized according to a decimal system, with units of 10, 100, 1000, and 10,000 men. These numbers for units were probably rarely approached due to casualties and attrition. The 10,000-man unit was the major fighting unit, like a modern division, capable of sustained fighting on its own. Individual soldiers identified most with the 1000-man unit of which they were a part, the equivalent of a modern regiment. Original Mongol tribes fielded their own 1000-man units. Conquered peoples, such as the Tatars and Merkits, were broken up and distributed among other units so that they could pose no organized threat to the ruling family. Genghis Khan created a personal guard unit of 10,000 men. This unit was recruited across tribal boundaries and selection was a high honor. In its early stages it served as a form of honorable hostage-holding. It grew into the family household and the source of the growing empire's ruling class. Mongol soldiers at first received no pay other than booty. Advancement was based on merit. Once the rapid conquests slowed, a new system of pay was put in place. Officers were later able to pass on their posts to heirs. Each soldier went on campaign with approximately five horses, allowing quick changes and rapid movements.

Claudio – ‘A man of honour betrayed’?

In Shakespeare's ‘Much Ado About Nothing' honour is very important to all the gentil characters. To know Claudio's character and his cruel treatment of Hero, it is important to understand the honour code. Specific to aristocracy, honour meant reputation, status and respect. A man's honour was earned through conduct in battle and the virtue of a wife and daughter. Contemporary audiences would not approve of Claudio's manner towards Hero, whereas Renaissance audiences would understand Claudio's behaviour towards Hero. This is because honour was regarded very highly n their social class, which would suggest why audiences would see Claudio as ‘a man of honour betrayed'. Throughout the play, even when the truth of Hero's chastity comes out, Claudio is a respected character who is not disliked by other characters, such as Benedick and Don Pedro. Audiences in the renaissance periods believed honour was everything. Claudio's ‘dishonouring' would not only act as a threat to his reputation, but also undermine the social structure, as honour was an important tool of social cohesion. The Renaissance era believed that honour was synonymous with order. It is important to emphasize this concept to understand that Claudio is ‘a man of honour betrayed'. Nevertheless Shakespeare recognizes the importance of honour throughout the play. However,he also sees that the code as flawed, meaning men can defend their honour using weapons in the battlefield and in duel, yet a man can shame a woman, as Claudio does Hero, and she cannot defend herself. If Claudio had allowed Hero to dishonour him he would have lost his well-earned reputation, so he ‘shames' her. Claudio talks of Hero as if she were an object, and insults her at every opportunity. For instance, whilst he is alking to Leonato he says: â€Å"There, Leonato, take her back again. Give not this rotten orange to your friend, She's but the sign and semblance of her honour. † There are many contradictions within the honour code, men are meant to cherish and ‘honour' women, but are only too ready to dishonour them, accusing them of being â€Å"spoiled goods†, as in the case of Claudio and Hero. At the beginning of the play when the messenger enters he describes Claudio as having : â€Å"the figure of a lamb, the feats of a lion†¦ † Claudio is considered a man of honour, he is praised in battle and is portrayed as a great soldier; he is said to be noble Claudio†. The lamb/lion metaphor is very appropriate for Claudio as he could be seen as naive and easily influenced by Don John, this is because of his extreme youth. Even without evidence Claudio was ready to believe Don John over Hero. When Don John delivers the news of Hero's disloyalty, Claudio and Don Pedro are quick to believe a fellow male soldier, without thinking that Don John could be lying. This could be seen as a contradiction as it was believed that â€Å"bastards† were not to be trusted. Don John referred to himself as a bad character saying; â€Å"I am a plain-dealing illain†, audiences may think that Claudio is not ‘a man of honour betrayed', as he is the one who is betraying Hero by believing the words of Don John. There are also many characters in the play that sympathize with him and believe that he is right to shame H ero. The honour code meant that if a friend got disrespected and dishonoured then it could affect other friends, in the same way that Don Pedro felt dishonoured. â€Å"I stand dishonoured, that have gone about to link my dear friend to a common stale. † Don Pedro supports his friend and believes that he is dishonoured, as it was him who wooed Hero for him. Due to the allegations about Hero, other characters in the play believe that they too are dishonoured. One of whom is Leonato, Hero's father. Leonato believes that Hero has destroyed the family's reputation and throws terrible insults at her as well as refusing to believe that she could be his daughter by saying; â€Å"No part of it is mine; This shame derives itself from unknown loins? â€Å". Before knowing the facts Leonato instantly believes that his daughter has ruined the family. It could be argued that Claudio invites sympathy as Don John tricks him into believing that Hero has dishonoured him. There are many different nterpretations to whether Claudio actually believes that he was betrayed. For example if Claudio genuinely believes himself betrayed then perhaps his actions can be justified, like in Kenneth Branagh's Much Ado About Nothing production, he makes Claudio's rage and hurt believable by making the witnessed infidelity convincing. To understand the presentation of Claudio's character it is necessary to consider him as a man of honour betrayed', which means the scene where Hero, allegedly, is dishonouring Claudio should be believable. In Shakespeare's time, a woman's honour was based upon her virginity and chaste ehaviour. For a woman to lose her honour by having sexual relations before marriage meant that she would lose all respect, a catastrophe from which she could never recover. Furthermore, this loss of honour would destroy the woman's whole family. Hence, when Leonato believes Claudio's shaming of Hero at the wedding ceremony, he tries to obliterate her entirely: â€Å"Hence from her, let her die†. Moreover, he speaks of her loss of honour as an unforgettable stain from which he cannot distance himself, no matter how hard he tries: â€Å"O she is fallen / Into a pit of ink, that the wide sea / Hath rops too few to wash her clean again†. Leonato is prepared to align himself with Claudio rather then his own daughter. The illusory betrayal of Claudio's ‘honour' becomes Leonato's dishonouring as she has ‘smeared the family name'. Honour was a frequent theme in some of Shakespeare's plays and was also common in that period, for example in Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar, Brutus says â€Å"Believe me for mine honour, and have respect to mine honour that you may believe†. Mowbray states in Richard 11 â€Å"Mine honour is my life; both grow in one/Take honour from me, and my life is done†. This shows the importance of honour in that period. Claudio speaks of Hero as an ‘object' by referring to her as a â€Å"jewel†. Claudio's tendencies to see Hero as an object was because he had no intimacy with her and perceived her as a commodity. His language portrays the differences between his and Benedick's love. The way Claudio speaks of his love shows the audiences that Claudio is not very romantic, which could affect how audiences would think of him. Audiences might dislike Claudio because he is not the conventional romantic character like ‘Romeo'. Whilst talking about Hero, Claudio sometimes uses blank verse. His speech seems more constructed and artificial then others, which has the effect of making him sound less genuine. He doesn't talk about Hero with passion, whereas Benedick uses poetry and sonnets to show and represent his love towards Beatrice. There is irony in the play when it comes to the denunciation of Hero, where Claudio speaks with passion to Hero for the first time, out of hatred. This shows audiences that Claudio did not love Hero truly otherwise he would not have been so quick to judge her. In act 4 scene 1 he likens her to an animal; â€Å".. or those pampered animals that rage in savage sensuality†. However, it could be said that after Claudio finds out the truth he knows that he has wronged Hero. He tries to renew Hero's reputation by marrying Leonato's niece even if she is an â€Å"Ethiope†, which means that he was truly apologetic. Some critics argue that Claudio has a business like approach, it can be argued that he only wants the estate, before Claudio married Hero he was fully informed about the property: â€Å"Hath Leonato any son, my lord? † In aristocratic society, people were dependant upon marriages of conveniences based on status and property, which could mean that Claudio is not a man of honour betrayed, as he only married for onvenience. Before Claudio went to war all he thought about was fighting but as soon as he has finished it is time for marriage. When he had finally come from war, audiences can tell that he is ready for marriage as one of the first sentences he says are â€Å"I would scarce trust myself, though I had sworn the contrary, if Hero would be my wife. † Critics can also argue that ‘war' can be seen as a central metaphor, the men return from war and instantly convey the values engaged on the battlefield into the domestic arena. ‘Love' is presented by Shakespeare as a form of warfare with the sexes battling it out. However, it is not a fair fight because women, unlike men, can not physically defend their honour. Hero's honour is betrayed, but there is little she can do about it. Claudio uses the metaphor â€Å"beauty is a witch†, even before his relationship with Hero, Claudio started showing that he was already suspicious of her -seeing her as an Eve, a betrayer of men. This emphasizes what he felt about women and reflected a popular renaissance view – that women were untrustworthy. It may be argued that Claudio lived in a society that was very misogynistic; during that period much of the fiction included misogynistic views. In the renaissance period people used to live by the bible, this is where the idea of male superiority came from. The story of Adam and Eve blames Eve for tempting Adam to eat the fruit. Thus, it was the woman who was morally weak. In Genesis, Chapter Two vs. 21-25 it says; â€Å"and the rib, which the Lord God had taken from man, made he a woman.. † Women were ‘made from men' reinforcing the illusion of inferiority. In renaissance times it was believed that women were deceivers and were there to tempt, just like Eve. It could be argued that Claudio was not to blame for his reaction to Hero, as he was erely reacting as men would at that time as it represented Elizabethan values. Benedick has similar values, believing that if he gets married he would be cuckolded; â€Å"I will live a bachelor†. There are endless Elizabethan jokes about cuckoldry, which reveal a general fear of infidelity that was perceived as dishonour. It was believed that the honour code was important and that soldiers such as Claudio were supposed to behave with chivalry. Audiences might have found it hard to sympathize with Claudio even in the Renaissance period because he was not behaving n a truly chivalrous manner. His behaviour could be seen as unacceptable and immoral as he treats Hero in a shameful way. However, Claudio's behaviour can be seen as acceptable once audiences understand the honour. Claudio's honour was so important to him, but when Hero allegedly cheated on him, he believed that it was only right to shame her. Claudio could have been seen as a victim of gossip within the play as he was lied to and manipulated by Don John to fulfill his plan. However despite this, Claudio changed his mind about Hero and instantly believed that she had done wrong. In conclusion, it could be argued that Claudio was not at fault. He was just mirroring the values of renaissance society. It is important to understand how social status and honour worked in the renaissance period to understand Claudio's cruelty. He was a ‘man of honour betrayed' and to understand what he did to Hero, audiences would have to consider that he thought that he had been betrayed. Nevertheless, it would be hard for any audience to sympathize with Claudio, as he did not behave with chivalry. However, Claudio realized his mistake and was willing to marry Hero's cousin.

Abraham Lincoln – Short Essay

In 1828, Andrew capital of Mississippi was elected for chair because he was a common, well-known man who was involved in the world and has acted profoundly passim the years. In 1829 Andre capital of Mississippi became the seventh president of the United States until his term ended in 1837. During his establishment, President Andrew capital of Mississippi had some(prenominal) accomplishments. To start out with, Jackson was the source to introduce the Spoils formation to the national government. This gave him a chance to levy everyone in congress and just study anybody that supported him to give the presidents more superpower and favor.Many disagreed with this system but he did it anyway. Jackson vetoed more bills in his presidency than every(prenominal) the presidents put together. He was the first to use pocket veto and utilise the power extensively. While in might Jackson defied the Supreme Court go away everyone confused. In the Worcester Vs. Georgia in 1832 the aut ocratic court ruled for Georgia. President Andrew Jackson defied the decision that the court made and logical a removal. He was against the court and he vetoed their decision in a dash of an eye.Jackson was a man with unlike opinion and he also took a stand in what he believed in. The warrant bank of the United States was full of craft and corruption and President Jackson precious it to end as soon as possible because of that. It did indeed end and Jackson was considered completely responsible for that. He vetoed several bills to get it done and did not slumber until the bank went bankrupt and ended. President Andrew Jackson was a expectant President, a great husband, son and father but virtually importantly, he was a good all around person who accomplished so much in his life.

Psych Profile of Kennedy

During champion of the near roiled times in unite States history, our chairperson potty F. Kennedy exhibited his decision do style and loss leadership qualities such(prenominal) as vision, delegation, focus, and ambition. His confines was short lived, lasting exclusively devil years and ten months, entirely in that time he made a great imp coiffe on the coupled States and even the serviceman. He was so valuable because he was a great leader in a time when the United States was in dire drive of one. John F. Kennedys leadership qualities and decision making style reflected in the ways he responded to such events as The Cuban rocket Crisis and The be blab of Pigs impact.John F. Kennedy was a sound chair he showed vision, decision making style, and delegation through his enactment of policies and the decisions he made while he was president. These trio aspects of his character provide a poser for how he handled situations. Vision mobilizes external support for th e leaders anywherearching goals, and charts come to the fore a national direction. Decision making style focuses on the internal, process-oriented aspects of leadership. The Delegation factor assesses what competency and perspectives that ordain bring input into the decision-making which pull up stakes carry out the vision. Kennedy was concerned with the national security of the country and did of all timeything he could to understand the safety of its deal. atomic number 53 of the decisions carried out by John F. Kennedy was the verbalise of Pigs Invasion. The request of Pigs Invasion was an onslaught of the talk of Pigs in Cuba by special CIA trained Cuban exiles in an attempt to pervert Fidel Castro. The decision was in the end made by John F. Kennedy and it failed in just a couple of days. galore(postnominal) men had died and others were interpreted as prisoners of war. Kennedy would ultimately support to negotiate for the release of advantageously over 1,00 0 survivors. The infringement failed for a subject of reasons.Kennedys Presidential advisory direction made six false assumptions regarding the Bay of Pigs Invasion no one pull up stakes know that the United States was responsible for the onset of Cuba, the Cuban air baron does non pose a threat, the Cuban exiles feel steep morale and are instinctive to carry out the mission without whatsoever support, Castros army is weak, the invasion will spark a revolution among lot in Cuba, and if the brigade doesnt conform to wherefore they can retreat to the Escambray Mountains. Kennedy admitted after that he had his doubts roughly the mission but kept them to himself. How could I have been so stupid? President John F. Kennedy asked that after the Bay of Pigs fiasco. He called it a grand mistake. It left him feeling depressed, guilty, bitter, and in tears. One historian later(prenominal)(prenominal) called the Bay of Pigs, one of those rare events in history a perfect failu re. So why then, did Kennedy not voice his concerns? There was an underlying force that was apparent while Kennedy was discussing the invasion with his advisors, it is cognize as Groupthink. Irving L. Janis wrote a book explaining congregation think and failures that occurred in history as a result of it, The Bay of Pigs invasion being one of them.Janis describes Groupthink as An lush form of concurrence speaking among members of high prestige, tightly-knit policy making groups. It is excessive to the period that the group members have come to revalue the group (and their being part of it) higher(prenominal) than eitherthing else. This causes them to strive for a quick and painless unanimity on the issues that the group has to confront. To conduct the clubby atmosphere, group members suppress in the flesh(predicate) doubts, silence dissenters, and go along with the habitual consensus of the group. This theory of groupthink has affected many groups in history negatively.Ha d groupthink not been present then the Bay of Pigs Invasion may not have even happened. All it wouldve taken was for the closed mouth president to speak up and voice his opinion almost how it could go wrong. Mongar argues that it appeared as though Kennedy experient difficulty separating the administrative and governmental functions of the presidency, which would have been understandable in view of the fact that the Bay of Pigs was his starting signal of import political decision. As far as the Bay of Pigs is concerned, Kennedy started out as a honest decision maker or irrelevant policy leader.He would since become a more complex decision maker, exploitation carefulness and strategy to implement policies and decisions. Kennedy later revised his group decision-making process to go on more dissent and debate. This change would later help to avert a authority difference nuclear disaster. Even though the Bay of Pigs Invasion turned out to be a complete failure, Kennedy demon strated that he was ambitious. He was a new president and wished to start off strong, so given the opportunity to attempt to overthrow Fidel Castro, he took it.This showed in his actions following the invasion as well, for he had to negotiate for the lives of over a thousand survivors or prisoner of wars that were captured during the failed invasion. The psych or individual attributes of any given leader are important in the decision making process. slightly situations even encourage leaders to blend their own attributes with the problems theyre dealing with. The Cuban Missile Crisis can be attributed as being one of those occasions. The Cold fight Rivalry had been extremely high betwixt America and the Soviet Union for years.The Cuban Missile Crisis was an event that had the entire world standing in fear and attention. In October of 1962, aerial photos showed Soviet nuclear missile sites that were armed in Cuba. If the program were to continue, their nuclear warheads would be able to reach most of the United States. John F. Kennedys first inclination was to sling an air whack to take out the missiles but upon set ahead speculation and debate with his advisors he conclude that it would be a poor idea, view back to the debacle of the Bay of Pigs Invasion.He instead decided to use diffused exponent through negotiations and blockades. Soft power is the use of alternatives to military conflict such as treaties, negotiations, and policies. Kennedy was offended by what he believed were false assurances from Khrushchev that the Soviet Union was only introducing defensive weapons to Cuba as a actor to defend the country from a potential attack from America. Kennedy said that the missiles would have to be removed because he did not want it to have a negative effect on the global political balance. He took the action of making a quarantine or blockade around Cuba, which was considered an act of war but he did not think that the Soviet Union would launch an attack from a mere blockade. What this meant was that every ship entering or departure Cuba was to be inspected by the U. S. Navy, mainly for yucky weapons of any kind. The failure that Kennedy faced from the Bay of Pigs Invasion was not something that he was involuntary to face a second time, specially since in this case it could mean the want of the world.He was diligent and focused in his plan with the Cuban Missile Crisis. Kennedys succorance need and his obsession for competence demonstrable expertise. In general, the implementation groups brought together in crisis situations were ranking(a) to any the White House has ever known. The indirect effects were largely cognitive, involving the elan in which his operational regulators structured and expectations of his advisers Kennedys pessimism about he probability of failure alter their sense of professional craftsmanship and inscription to sound judgment his sense of discourage produced a reluctance to act prematurely which usually gave them more time to rifle his natural skepticism encouraged them to well question every conclusion and relic of information encountered. This shows that through Kennedys constitution traits, he was able to influence the people around him and thus making everything proceed smoothly. He had a sense of circumspection and thoroughness that enabled him and his advisors to handle the situation without any hiccups.

Abortion in the United States Essay

Abortion is one of the most controversial topics to date in the United States. Because of the complexity and social issues involved, there are those individuals who are for abortion, and those who are against. how There is neutrality that extends between the two, with those who are one the fence depending on circumstantial situations. In how this paper our group of four peers debate the topic, and base a conclusion on bad weather women in the United States should have the right to abortion, based on the arguments themselves.It should remain legal.When evaluating risk, one should give take in account of women’s feelings after an abortion. Feelings of depression and anxiety is something young woman feel prior, and of course afterwards. Women sometimes choose abortions because of medical issues with the babies, or horrifying circumstances leading to the unwanted pregnancy. Henry P.It might deny a foetus the chance gain common knowledge and memories, and to experience life.

Usual feelings after an abortion is relief, loss, sadness, and grief.It is okay to grieve and you should give yourself time to grieve. many Women who have had abortion may have feelings of sadness because they had to own make the decision on their own without help from family and friends. Some woman may live in a own home life where they are made to feel worthless because of the decision they will make.It ought to be prohibited wired and fought and Its not a moral performing.Abortions are performed with in the first 9 weeks of pregnancy. Early termination the better is for the woman, less complications. Most woman receiving their abortion within the first 9 weeks report no complications afterwards. Less than 0.Several have pondered upon the importance of abortion.

Deciding to have an abortion is an important decision in itself and having others dictate you can or cannot choose makes the situation even more confusing.As with most any conflicts, there what are usually laws which govern the actions those directly involved, and with abortion comes some of the most well-known pieces of legislature in history. Today in the United States abortion is legal in every state due to the decision of Roe v. Wade.Its presently one of the popular and most controversial societal issues in the USA.On the same day of the Roe decision, another case in the state3 of Georgia was also decided on, in the case of Doe v Bolton we the state in question also was found to be in violation of the appellants constitutional rights.The twenty Ninth Amendment: The enumeration in the constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage several others retained by the people. The Fourteenth Amendment: Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the U nited States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the state wherein they reside.Abortion isnt just the legal right of a woman, its the choice of a woman.

The side effects of abortion are sometimes critical. Some of them involve spotting logical and bleeding. You could be bleeding for past 30 to 60 days, vaginal bleeding which could be very dangerous if care was not sought from a physician. Another side affect is headaches and dizziness, fever and chills, nausea and vomiting, cramping, and diarrhea.Its the selection of a lady in whether part she wants to get one.Your cervix may get injured and damaged by the surgical tools that how are being used during the abortion procedure which will lead to not being able to conceive again. Women who have gone through abortion are at a greater risk of ovarian and cervical cancer. Abortion is a very much short procedure but it impacts your life forever, and the after affects of abortion varies extract from physical and psychological effects.Women may develop an eating disorders, or drugs on alcohol abuse, or they may have flash backs about the procedures themselves.Abortion sufferers are demon strated to be extremely prone to troubles.

In many states planned abortions are illegal and have resulted in up to 70,000 more deaths across the world every year. Many arguments support the issue on abortion. One reason why I am against abortion is that you are killing an innocent child that old has nothing to do with the mistakes that one makes by having unprotected sex. You should not kill an unborn child because you are ashamed and afraid of what people might say about you.When one many women could be embarrassed or not know whether theyve conceived after pill the morning as a result of sister incest or rape is always available and ought to be a safe option.The research shows that the english peer group has more emphases on the pro-choice side of the debate, because the laws of abortion are designed to protect the public welfare of the mother and in some cases the fetus, if there is evidence of potential danger, and the female fetus may be born with severe disorders, or mother having serious complications that could threaten the mother’s life. In the past, abortions were not as safe as they are today due to advanced technologies, making abortion safer than they’ve ever been before.Abortion is sometimes the best course because of medical issues, and sometimes due to other horrifying circumstances in which some women may become pregnant, such as rape, incest, and or other circumstances that may be legitimately valid reasons, and may lessen the quality of life for the child or mother. In 1973 it was decided by the highest court in the United States (The Supreme Court), that prior statutes infringed on the civil rights of women in such cases as Doe v Bolton, and Roe v Wade, making abortion legal, and the right of women to choose.Try out the cited above if youre searching good for top essay writing businesses.

Arguments for Pro Choice. Retrieved from Buzzle.com website: http://www.buzzle.Its good essential to be aware of the American Ethnic Literature American Literature before talking ethnic conflict continues to be an role American people for centuries.(n.d.). In Legal Information Institute.Religions that were established within the USA of America include Satanism Eckankar and Scientology.

html. Dudley, S., Ph.D.There are several reasons why you could be pro-life.d.). Retrieved from multi National Abortion Federation. Revised December 2006.Abortion was legalized in the usa of 1973 on January 22.

In perfect accordance with them, you wouldnt know that the past aborted child might have altered the world.(2012, late April 14). No One Called Me a Slut. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.Human life begins at the time of conception.d.). In Legal additional Information Institute. Retrieved from http://www.

The usa is the most important nation on the planet.They has fought a lot of times for various reasons.html. Sengupta, S. (2010, early June 30). Should Abortion Be Legal.America faces many troubles.