Text Linguistics Essay Example for Free

Text Linguistics Essay Module I. Classificationally meaningful characteristics of the text as an integral and independent object of investigation. Lecture 6. Conceptual variability of linguistic interpretations of the text essence and status and their reflections in the models of the text descriptions. Problem for discussion Evolution of the text description approaches. Models of the text descriptions. Grounds for the chosen models and schemes of the text descriptions as a scientific object. It has already been mentioned that despite the fact that there are many publications devoted to problems of text linguistics. There does not exist an adequate definition of the text that would find satisfaction with all researchers. The difficulties that arise when trying to work out an universally acceptable definition of the text can be explained by the fact that scholars study the text in its various aspects : grammatical, stylistic, semantic, functional and so on. The text can be studied as a product ( text grammar) or as a process (theory of text). The text-as-a-product approach is focused on the text on the text cohesion, coherence, topical organization, illocutionary structure and communicative functions; the text-as-a-process perspective studies the text production, reception and interpretation. Text can be understood as an instance of (spoken or written) language use ( an act of parole) , a relatively self-contained unit of communication. As a â€Å"communicative occurrence† it meets seven criteria of textuality (the constitutive principles of textual communication): cohesion, coherence, intentioanality, acceptability, informativity, situationality, and intertextuality and three regulative principles of textual communication: efficiency, effectiveness and approapriateness.(cf. de Beaugrande and Dressler 1981, Maljaer 1991) 1. Regular Principles of Textual Communiction. The principle of efficiency requires that a text should be used with a minimum effort hence the use of plain ( stereotyped and unimaginative)  language. Which, however booring and unimpressive, is easy to produce and comprehend. In contrast, effectiveness presumes leaving a strong impression and the creation of favourable conditions for attaining a communicative goal; this presupposes the use of creative ( original, imaginative) language which, however effective, may lead to communicative breakdown. The principle of appropriateness attempts to balance off the two above mentioned principles by seeking an accord between the text setting and standards of textuality. Common text features. Some common text features found in books are Table of Contents, Glossary, Index, Bold Words, Headings and Titles, Maps, Diagrams, Illustrations and Charts. Why is Understanding Text Features an important reading strategy? Text Features help us to identify the big ideas and topics that the author is focusing on. Visual text features such as maps and charts help to support the information the author presents in the text. How do we use text features to help us understand what we are reading? Before reading, preview the kinds of text features throughout the book. Think about what the big ideas the author wants you to remember. Make sure to read captions Functional Classification  The functional classification identifies illocutionary text types according to the type of the dominating illocutionary act (see 10.2): representative or assertive type (e.g. research reports, public notices, administrative texts, weather forecasts, diaries, CVs, lectures), directive type (e.g. commands, orders, invitations, instructions, directions, giving advice), expressive type (e.g. apologies, thank-you notes, greeting, condolences, compliments, toasts, congratulations), commissive type ( e.g. promises , pledges, swears, offers, vows, contracts, bets), declarative or performative type (e.g. , nominations, appointments, dismissals, accussations: I find you guilty as charged, marriage ceremonies, testaments, certificates). Texts viewed from this perspective satisfy diverse communicative needs of the society members. Situational Classification  The situational classification sorts out texts according to the sphere of activity (e.g., private, official or public, such as a private letter, a  letter addressed to an institution) and form of communication (dialogical and monological, spoken and written texts). Strategic Classification  The strategic classification deals primarily with the topic and the ways of its expansion 9 the term slohove postupy is used in Slovak stylistics to denote macrocompositional principles, cf. Mistrik 1997): narrative, descriptive, and argumentative.

The Ramayana and Trade Case Essay Example for Free

The Ramayana and Trade Case Essay When we talk about Ramayana, we look at it as an epic story of powerful people, of gods and goddesses intervening with the people’s affairs, and of other-worldly creatures which one could never imagine. Truly, it is a wonderful, fictional story. But it is not only about legendary battles and imaginary characters. We can also associate it with real-life activities which are being conducted in a day-to-day basis. A good example of such activity is trade, which is evident in the epic story Ramayana.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One evident example of Trade in Ramayana is the existence of different races and classes of people. It is inevitable that they would interact with each other in exchange of goods coming from one kingdom to another. The people coexisted with other races like the demons and the monkeys by establishing connections with each other through exchanges of merchandise, goods, and even services. Weapons were also evidently traded in the story of Ramayana, since there are a lot of wars going on in the kingdom. Another manifestation of trade in the story is the flow of people in different kingdoms. People come and go to different places by trading their goods with other groups of people. Being exiled or being overthrown from a kingdom could have resulted from wrong trading practices which attracted disapproval from the people (Narayan, 1993).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Despite being an epic story, The Ramayana still has several attributes wherein we could associate it with our real day-to-day activities. Trade is one of these activities, and it is well depicted throughout the epic story. Works Cited: Narayan, R. K. (1993). Ramayana: A Shortened Modern Prose Version of the Indian Epic. USA: Penguin Group.

Discussion On The Contribution Of Positivism Philosophy Essay

Discussion On The Contribution Of Positivism Philosophy Essay The universe, everything will change this world everything goes. Society, as a large system, in science and technology become increasingly developed, the rapid improvement of peoples living standard, they also forced us to face one another social problem: The first is the living space needed for the growing and the existing living space very small contradictions, raising concerns about the future of the Concerned; and the real social problems which also plague the people day after day, prompting people to reflect on these issues. Positivism is a product of social change is that people are a reflection of social issues, and its produce to the community has made great contributions to the ensuing also include the limitations of positivism. This essay will talk about the meaning and development of positivism, and then it will show the contribution of positivism and its limitation. The essay also focuses every positivist who makes a significant contribution for positivism. When people want to know the contribution of positivism in society, then they hope to discuss critical of positivism. Firstly they should know what is positivism? What is it time to start, what are the reasons of origin, and other development? (J H Bridges, Robert Speller and Sons 1957) Positivism is a kind of sensory experience stress, rejection of Western metaphysics, the philosophical schools. Empirical positivism was as a form of expression, resulting in the 19th century, 30 to 40 years in France and Britain. Before that, I. Newton, D. Humes empiricism has been involved in empirical question, and the early 19th century French utopian socialists H. Saint-Simon first use positivism. However, strictly speaking, the founder of positivism is the French philosopher, sociologist A. Comte. From 1830 onwards, Comte successively its six volumes of this evidence-based philosophy tutorial, marked the formation of positivism. In accordance with the views of Comte, positivism, broadly speaking , (Comte 1844) philosophical and political system by the composition, the former is the foundation, and next one is a huge system of purpose; narrow to say that Comte founded positivism that is empirical philosophy. Comte that the history of mankind from superstition or metaphysics of science process. When the communities of scientists manage the society, people entered the reality phase. After Comtes positivism, Durkheim righted to be amended and created his own new theory of social fact. What is social fact? (Hadden, p. 104) Durkheim defined social facts as things is the fact that external coercion, which is to create a collective strength rather than from individuals. While they may not seem to be observable, social facts are things, and are to be studied empirically, not philosophically (Ritzer, p. 78). Social Facts: When I perform brother, husband, or citizens, when I carry out my contract, my responsibility, so I define the responsibilities, external to myself and my behavior, in law and custom. Even if they meet my own emotions, I feel that their subjective reality, which is still objective, because I did not create them, I just through my education, inheritance them. (Durkheim Rules, p. 1).   As examples of social facts, Durkheim cites religious beliefs, currency used to undertake transactions, and factors such as the practices followed in my profession (Durkheim Rules, p. 2). These types of behavior or thought are not only outside the individual, but, in addition, to give to force them to impose his own virtue, his personal will to the transfer. (Durkheim Rules, p. 2).    Subsequently, a number of philosophers and scientists of the Comtes positivist philosophy be revised to exclude an epistemological doctrine, promoting a new philosophy of science, there has been Machism and logical positivism.( J. T. Blackmore, R. Itagaki, and S. Tanaka 2009) E. Mach believe that the real science is a fine phenomenology, that is the exact description of a person feels, including this one from where they found some of the rules. He was opposed to the introduction of atomic physics and chemistry, and to a positivist tone of voice, said: You really see it? To the 20th century, Positivism and B. Russell and AN Whiteheads combination of basic mathematics and become the Vienna school of logical positivism lord. Therefore, the history of the positivism is divided into two types: the early positivism known as the old positivism, logical positivism, also known as neo-positivism. Since the days of self-Comte, positivism, who has been graded to be organized on various subjects? From the oldest and the most basic physics to social sciences, each science are assumed to be restored to a sub-1 level, so almost all science and all branches of physics. Genially, (Comte 1844) positivist thought in general the pursuit of scientific facts can be observed, verifiable, and that the predictable future society must be good. Positivism on this attitude of society in the future there are similarities with the utopian socialism, positivism, the contribution of other obvious trend is that it track to track the development of science and scientific development process of the absorption of the factors conducive to philosophical reflection. In short, positivism is a major benefit from the development achievements of modern science and philosophy, but the birth of science to the philosophy of conversion factor is the overall development of modern Western society. The existence of things is a double-edged. Positivism defect is very clear: First, (Alfred Schutz, George Walsh, and Fredrick Lehnert 1967) it over-emphasized the phenomenon, namely, the importance of perceptual knowledge, ignoring rational thought in the history of contributions to human civilization. This caught in inductive way of thinking. Second, (M Weber 1978) it ignores the peoples awareness, particularly the limitations of perceptual knowledge, but to perceptual knowledge extended to the whole of human history. Means that as long as the positivism of cognition, in any era is all that can be perceived, but people know the reality not the case. Third, positivism not seems to realize that natural scientific approach congenitally deficient. Therefore, people can also make such a positivist criticism. Then positivism is not a panacea theory, is that many positivists themselves think so too, therefore, on some issues people can and must be positivism to the study, in some other iss ues; people will need to use some other ways to solve the problem, such as rationalism, not only positivism. Then the famous positivist Comtes positivism is a kind of sensory experience stress, exclusion metaphysical schools of Western philosophy, Comte use it to try to distinguish and thus to replace the traditional philosophy of idealism and materialism. Comtes positivism is the idealism of Berkeley and Humes empiricism and Newtons mechanistic philosophy of combination. It is in this experience, tradition, inspired by the positivist philosophy of Comte from which extends the theory out. Positivism, empiricism has inherited the basic viewpoints of the past, that the origin of all the issues on the world belong to metaphysics, but only what is the philosophy of phenomenology should be studied. (A Comte 1988)Comte advocated everything should be based on the point of view the phenomenon as a starting point, only those who really based on knowledge are scientific. Positivist philosophy of Comte first three stages of the development of the human mind of the inspection, the second is an empirica l interpretation of the spirit. Comtes sociology, said that he was mainly from the positivist point of view, put forward the idea of building a modern society. In addition, (A Comte 1979)Comte is divided into social statics and social dynamics the two blocks of sociology, Social Statics study of social system and social structure, this is not to consider the social system of basic movement, to study the various components of the system between the roles and counterproductive law. It corresponds to the order. Social dynamics, which research development and changes in the social system, the laws, the core was social progress. This distinction is not a distinction between two types of facts, but the distinction between two aspects of the theory order and progress, statics and dynamics, are always interrelated. However, (M J Smith 1998) Comte focus only on his own during this period of European cultural values, there is no more comprehensive look at the definition of positivism; his stu dy has limitations and is in a particular environment, a study is not comprehensive. (B Agger 2007) Durkheims contributions mainly have social facts, social aspects, and division of labour and sociological approaches. According to social facts and social aspects he has a strong social structure point of view, in every one of us is subject to these social facts, and how we must adapt to these means. Durkheim believed that the division of labor does not lead to social disintegration, but the change in the form of social solidarity provides a useful method of study of modern society. However, there are some problems with his opinion such as actions, consensus, solidarity and common Consciousness. Although there are common ethical in our society in many aspects, there is one in similar circumstances, a person acting in various ways there are also many opportunities. Durkheim may be aware of this possibility, but he did not seem to have anything to say about the nature of human motivation. He was too concerned about the larger structural problem. human action or human act ion is unlikely that the theory is limited. Webers action or models, such as symbolic interactionism the most recent here, some of the methods will prove more useful. While doing thinking of Durkheim on social unity and a source of useful contribution, which usually seems to be his only concern. Durkheim and structure of the functional approach with the difficulties of the latter is almost completely ignored the conflict and power differences. (Laurence D. Smith 1988)Laurence D. Smith (Author) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ º Visit Amazons Laurence D. Smith PageAfter Durkheim, logical positivism empirical basis in logic as a tool for reasoning, using probability theory to correct conclusions. It is believed that the scientific study of human behavior is the only correct way. Logical positivism that: a question of fact that only recourse to observation alone. Lets say the logical positivism of the logical. Logic is an important tool for logical positivism. One is the scientific methodology of inductive logic, and the second is to create a semantic study of its interpretation of the logic. (M.W. Wartofsky 1984) The scientific concept of logical positivism does exist significant deficiencies, in which one of the most fundamental flaws is the humanistic significance of science and humanistic values of neglect. In accordance with logical positivism of science and scientific interpretation of Marxism, Science was seen as a kind of beyond the hum an or higher than the human nature becomes a self-existing entity, or be deemed to be a kind of detached from the on which it depends and development of the human condition, needs and interests of the mothers thing In conclusion, Positivism is a manifestation of social progress, it is a kind of social development and peoples thinking, and positivism is a philosophical genre, which is the empiricism of the evolution. It is an important component of Western philosophy, but there are also right to criticize the views of positivism, Western scholars have also put forward their own views, New Kantianism, Functionalism, Structuralism, Exchange theory Symbolic Interactionism Behaviorism and Post-modernism, etc., on the evidence ism expressed doubts and make their own good reasons. So people need to be more substantial look at these theories to better use than them.

Archetypal Characters Within the Slasher Film Sub-Genre Essay -- Film

Archetypal Characters Within the "Slasher" Film Sub-Genre One of the most telling traits of a society is how it entertains itself. Although Americans of the late twentieth century have many choices for distraction, one medium has had a particularly significant impact upon the fabric of American culture: film. Through pandering to the ideas and beliefs of the audience, filmmakers parallel those ideas and beliefs in their creations. This correlation was demonstrated in the glut of so-called "slasher" films during the period 1974-1984. Although the films were diverse in form and execution, the basic plot of these movies involved some sort of deranged psychopath gleefully stalking and killing a number of unfortunate teenage victims. Within this sub-genre there can be found a number of basic character styles, or archetypes. These archetypes not only serve to bind certain movies into the slasher category, but also to provide a window into the culture that they cater to. In order to present a specific example of each archetype, I have chosen four films that are exemplary of the overall sub-genre. Tobe Hooper's The Texas Chainsaw Massacre (1974) tells the story of a van full of traveling teenagers and their run-in with a family of backwoods cannibals. John Carpenter's Halloween (1978) has killer Michael Myers strangling baby-sitters on the night of said movie title. Sean Cunningham's Friday the 13th (1980) looses a hockey-masked psychopath upon a host of unsuspecting camp counselors. Finally, Tobe Hooper's The Funhouse (1981) finds four teens trapped in a carnival with a murderous sideshow freak. The most evident archetype within the slasher sub-genre is the Virgin. Usually the Virgin is the protagonist of the film, a female tee... ... of the sub-genre that began with the Wes Craven's Scream (1994). These films are not only helping to carry the archetypes of Halloween and Friday the 13th to a new generation of moviegoers, but also updating them as the culture has updated itself. Despite the changes some form of these archetypes will continue to exist, no matter how much American society alters. As long as a teenager yearns for the adrenaline rush from a masked murderer, slasher films and their archetypes will endure. Works Cited Halloween. Dir. John Carpenter, with Donald Pleasence and Jamie Lee Curtis. Falcon Productions, 1978. Friday the 13th. Dir. Sean Cunningham. Paramount, 1980. The Funhouse. Dir Tobe Hooper. Universal, 1981. McCarthy, Ken. The Splatter Film Guide. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992. The Texas Chainsaw Massacre. Dir Tobe Hooper. Rosebud Communications, 1974.

Fight Club Essay -- essays research papers

What did the film Distort?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A film adaptation of a book can be like hearsay. The author writes a novel to send a certain message. Someone else reads it interprets it in a different way and talks to a film producer. The film producers then take its, leaves out major events, change the ending and make a film with a completely different message than the author. The author then screams bloody murder then takes his cut from the box office. Joesph Boggs, the author of Problems with Adaptation, says â€Å"We expect the film to duplicate exactly the experience we had seeing the play or in reading the novel. That is, of course, completely impossible† (Boggs 672). No one told this theory to David Fincher, the director of Fight Club. Fincher stuck almost like glue to the novel. He did however, change a few events in the novel and the ending but stills successfully puts Palahniuk’s words on screen that even made Palahniuk happy to earn his profits.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Most of the changes Fincher made to Palahniuk novel were minor and insignificant. One example is the fat Tyler and the narrator used to make soap. In the novel, they steal the fat from Marla. Marla was keeping her mother's liposuction fat for her own plastic surgery. They steal the fat and store it in the Paper Street Soap Company's fridge. In the movie, Fincher had Tyler and the Narrator steal it from a plastic surgery dumpster. In the novels version it could be interpreted as another th...

The rise of the labour party :: essays research papers

The rise o the labour party was due to many factors.Factors such as the movement of people from the countryside to cities which changed the economic structure of britain and also changed the social structure and this led to the need for political change. The need for political change to help the working class people who were living in poverty which had been highlighted by booth and rownatree who surveyed LOndon an york two of englands major cities .Better education led to the realisation that the two existing political parties were not suitable for the working class' needs .All were factors which conrtibuted to the rise of the labour party . The british goverment was run mainly by rich aristocrats because working class people could not afford to become MPs but in 1911 they introdiced payment for MPs which let the working class represent themselves in their constituencies in parliament either the liberal or conservative parties .Although this had happened the rich aristocracy still believed that they knew best when dealing with the poor even though they did nothing to help the poor .This attitude was based partly on the principle of laissez fair which meant little help was given to the poor and the little help that was given was harsh like the poor houses .These factors needed to be changed and the only way was through political change this also lead to the rise of the labour party . Another reason for the rise of the labour party was the failure of the 1832 act which granted the vote to small buisiness men , financiers and entreprenuers of the industrial revolution but ignored the organised sections of working class.Although the 1832 act failed to grant working class people the vote the 1867 , 1872 and 1884 acts gave the vote to more working class people , although this had happened the new voters did not have a party to represent them .These problems also helped the rise of the labour party through the necessity of of a party to represent the working class . The skilled working class organised themselves into model unions which protected their members intrests this showed that through organisation the rich could be forced the relive some of the bad conditions .The growth of the new unions and also their sucess like the match girls and dockers showed that even the poorest working class people could win against the upper class and this ledd to the potential of the same being acheived on political terms .

Euthanasia Essay

Thesis: Euthanasia, and a common form of euthanasia, assisted suicide, should be legal processes through which aterminally ill individual may voluntarily end his or her own life. Summary: As of 2009, assisted suicide was legal in only three states: Oregon, Washington, and Montana. Since itsinception in those states, assisted suicide has proven to be an effective, but rarely employed means of allowing a terminallyill person to end his or her life in a dignified manner. Though the United States federal government has opposed measures toenact federal legislation that would legalize euthanasia and assisted suicide, the time has come for the federal governmentand the remainder of the states to recognize that, inherent in the right to live freely is the right to decide when to humanelyend one’s life. Introduction To understand the debate surrounding euthanasia, one must first understand euthanasia and its related variations. Theterm euthanasia, taken from the Greek word for â€Å"easy death,† refers to the process by which a physician prescribes andadministers a fatal dose of drugs to a terminally ill individual in a controlled medical environment, thus causing their death ina quick and painless manner. Euthanasia is commonly referred to as physician-assisted suicide. Assisted suicide, a relatedform of euthanasia, describes the process by which a physician or pharmacist only prescribes the fatal drugs, leaving theterminally ill individual to ingest the drugs on their own, at a time of their choosing. As of 2009, physician-assisted suicidewas not legal in any state in America, while assisted suicide was legal in three states. The Federal Government & the Courts A quartet of United States Supreme Court cases (Washington v. Glucksberg, Vacco v. Quill, Gonzales v. Oregon, and Cruzanv. Director, Missouri Department of Health) have helped to shape the legal landscape in the debate over euthanasia and anindividual’s right to refuse medical treatment. In Glucksberg and Vacco, companion cases decided in 1997, the SupremeCourt ruled that states have the authority to prohibit assisted suicide and against the notion that the right to die isguaranteed in the Constitution. More recently, in the 2006 Gonzales case, the Court held in a 6-3 opinion that the UnitedStates attorney general could not enforce a drug law, the Controlled Substances Act, against physicians   and pharmacists as ameans of punishing them for prescribing fatal doses of drugs to terminally ill patients. Finally, in the Cruzan case, theSupreme Court upheld the right of competent persons to refuse medical treatment, but ruled that clear and convincingevidence must exist of that person’s desire to limit the life-saving measures to be performed on them. The practical impact of these rulings is that, because the federal government cannot prosecute physicians and pharmacistswho prescribe drugs to terminally ill patients, the debate over euthanasia and assisted suicide in the US has primarily takenplace on the state level. Furthermore, while individuals have the constitutional right to prevent physicians from taking life-saving measures in the event of their incapacitation, they must make clear their desire, usually through a living will or a donot resuscitate order. Success at the State Level In 1994, Oregon became the first state to pass an assisted suicide law. The Oregon Death with Dignity Act has served as amodel statute in other states’ attempts to pass assisted suicide legislation. The act has several important provisions that, readtogether, provide safeguards for the terminally ill, the physicians that diagnose their terminal illnesses, and the pharmaciststhat prescribe lethal drugs. The act requires first, that a patient be diagnosed by a physician as having a terminal illness thatwill end the patient’s life within six months. Then, upon the patient’s request, a physician or pharmacist that has no moral orprofessional objection to assisted suicide will prescribe a lethal dose of drugs that the patient can ingest at a time of theirchoosing. Notably, the act has several safeguards, among them a requirement that the patient’s initial request for aprescription be witnessed by two people; that a second physician concur in the initial diagnos is of a terminal illness givingthe patient no more than six months to live; a conclusion that the patient is of sound mind; and a waiting period underwhich the patient must wait fifteen days before making a second, and final, oral request for the lethal prescription. These rules and safeguards ensure that only those who are both terminally ill and of a sound mind are able to obtain a lethaldose of drugs after having made a voluntary and informed decision. Additionally, and importantly, the act does not requirethose physicians or pharmacists opposed to assisted suicide to participate in, sanction, or play any role in bringing about thedeath of a term  inally ill person. The Washington Initiative 1000, passed by voters in 2008, was based on the Oregon act and, consequently, wassubstantially similar in its provisions and safeguards. Most recently, in December, 2008, a Montana trial court judge ruled thatcompetent, terminally ill patients have the right to self-administer lethal doses of drugs prescribed by a physician, thoughthat decision has been appealed to the Montana Supreme Court. Because assisted suicide in Washington and Montana is relatively new, Oregon is the only state in which data concerning theuse of lethal drugs by the terminally ill has been compiled. In the eight-year period from 1998 to 2006, 455 lethalprescriptions were written for terminally ill individuals, and 292 of those individuals used that prescription to commit suicide. Analysis of this data indicates that only around thirty-five terminally ill individuals die each year in Oregon as a result of theassisted suicide law. This data further suggests that physicians are carefully screening applicants, issuing on average onlyfifty-seven prescriptions per year. Finally, it is also clear that applicants carefully weigh the decision to use the prescription,judging by the fact that 35 percent of prescriptions issued to terminally ill patients—who have satisfied the numerousrequirements under Oregon’s Death with Dignity Act—went unused. International Law Oregon, Washington, and Montana are not the only jurisdictions in the world in which forms of euthanasia are legal.Notably, assisted suicide, in some form, is legal in both Belgium and the Netherlands, the latter of which has also legalizedphysician assisted suicide. Additionally, Germany has no law legalizing assisted suicide, but has not traditionally penalizedthose who have helped to end the life of a terminally ill person. As researchers have noted, however, death and suicide havedifferent stigmas attached to them depending on, among other factors, where one lives and the culture in which one wasraised. Consequently, it is not surprising that assisted suicide has been legalized in certain parts of the world, while it remainsa crime elsewhere. In the United States, however, where an individual has always in been control of their mind, body, souland destiny, death and suicide do not have as negative a cultural connotation as they may have in other parts of the world. The Social, Et hical, Medical & Economic Reasons Assisted suicide places the individual in control of his or her future, allowing the individual to decide how, when, and wherethey die. While an issue of self-determination, there are practical concerns that face the dying. Often, a terminally ill personwatches their savings account plummet while his or her medical costs and insurance premiums—assuming they are fortunateenough to have medical insurance—skyrocket. If they do not have insurance, it is unlikely they are able to afford even the most basic medications to controltheir pain or reduce their symptoms. Though their disease is incurable, in the later stages of their illness, they often take up a hospital bed and medicalresources, as well as the time of doctors, nurses and other hospital staff—time and health care dollars that could be expended on a person who can successfullybe treated and released. Friends and relatives watch their loved one suffer without remedy, knowing that the illness is fatal, but unable to do anything besideswait. Assisted suicide provides a quick and painless death, in contrast to the expected months of suffering a terminally ill patient must endure under normalcircumstances. The decision to end life on their own terms saves precious medical resources, ensures that the patient’s family will not financially sufferunnecessarily as a result of the illness, and allows the patient, and their family and friends, to say goodbye on their own terms in a quick and painless way.Notably, these arguments apply with equal force to physician-assisted suicide, wherein a physician not only monitors the patient to be sure they remaincompetent, but also administers the drugs at a time of the patient’s choosing, thus helping to ensure that the patient’s death is quick and painless. Opposition to Euthanasia Opposition to euthanasia comes in part from religious and social organizations that generally oppose measures that result in the death of an individual. Suchfeelings are indeed understandable, and it is difficult to change a person’s moral convictions. These organizations are free to petition their elected officials andto champion their causes—that right is fundamental to a democratic system. They also must, however, recognize the decisions made through a democraticprocess, as those initiatives in Oregon and Washington, where the majority of voters approved assisted suicide. (It is worth noting that some of these sameorganizations support the imposition of the death penalty for certain crimes,  citing the biblical passage â€Å"an eye for an eye.† In other words, some of thesegroups support the death of an individual when society has deemed it acceptable, but not when the individual himself seeks to end his life.) Other opponents include some doctors and physic ians, who have, as a condition of their license to practice medicine or dispense prescription medication, takena Hippocratic Oath requiring that they do no harm to patients. Importantly, however, the assisted suicide laws that have passed in Washington and Oregon donot by any means require the participation of physicians or pharmacists. Consequently, those physicians or pharmacists with a moral, professional, or religiousopposition to assisted suicide need not participate in any way in the assisted suicide of a patient. The same holds true for physician-assisted suicide which, inthe countries where it is legal, is practiced voluntarily. Finally, some in the medical field express concern over whether the terminally ill are of sound mind whenconsenting to suicide. While this is a valid and serious concern, the laws passed in Oregon and Washington, requiring multiple examinations, medicallyconsistent diagnoses, a waiting period, and a conclusion that the patient is of sound mind, serve to dramatically lessen any possibility that an incompetentpatient could be prescribed a fatal dose of drugs. Choosing for Others, but not for Oneself The death penalty is an authorized form of punishment in the federal criminal justice system, and also exists in well over half of the states. Through participationin the jury system and by electing officials into office who are charged with enforcing the death penalty, citizens have a role in determining which individualsare eligible for the death penalty and, more fundamentally, whether the death penalty as a form of punishment should persist, or should be repealed. Similarly,the United States Supreme Court has ruled that pregnant women have the right to choose—in many circumstances—whether to terminate their pregnancy. These examples demonstrate the contradiction that exists in forty-seven of the United States, under which average citizens are capable of playing a vital role indeciding whether other individuals live or die. These same citizens, though, are not entrusted with the same authority to make that decision when it comes totheir own lives in the extreme case of an incurable, terminal illness. Such a contradiction cannot stand. To preserve the dignity of human life, it is imperativethat the remaining states and the federal government legalize   euthanasia, whether in the form of physician-assisted suicide or assisted suicide, to provide asafe and dignified way for terminally individuals to end their suffering. With the advent of drugs that can both prolong and terminate life, as well as medical technology that can keep patients technically alive even in comatose or vegetative states, many questions have been raised about the quality of life each person deserves and identifying the fine line that demarcates the end of life. In addition, in the United States—a country marked from its inception by the hallmarks of individuality and personal responsibility—citizens and lawmakers alike are wrestling with issues regarding the degree to which an individual or family member should be empowered to make personal, private decisions about whether to continue medical care or choose the time, place and manner of death. Activists on both sides of the euthanasia debate have lobbied lawmakers to enact legislation in support of their views. The right to die movement is gaining support as a humane alternative to a poor quality of life maintained solely through continuous medical intervention. U nderstanding the Discussion Euthanasia: The practice of ending a person’s life either through an intentional act or by withholding medical care. The action is performed without malice, but with the intention of alleviating suffering or ending the pain of a terminal illness or poor quality of life. Hospice: An alternative program of care for patients in the final stages of life, in which efforts are not designed to treat the patient’s underlying illness but rather to provide pain management, symptom control, and family support. Informed consent: A patient’s expression of knowledge and acceptance of the risks, benefits, and alternative treatment options of a medical procedure and subsequent permission to a physician to perform the procedure. Physician-assisted suicide: A procedure in which a physician deliberately and knowingly provides lethal drugs at the individual’s request for the purpose of self-administration. Right to die: A belief that individuals should have the authority to c hoose the time, place and manner of their death. Terminal illness: A medical condition that is so advanced that treatment options are no longer available. History Although modern medical advancements and increased patient autonomy have renewed public interest in the right to die, the practice of euthanasia has been in existence for centuries. Numerous Greek and Roman writings have revealed a belief that death, even if initiated by self or another person, was preferable to prolonged suffering. However, this belief was not universal. The Hippocratic Oath, which medical practitioners in the United States have traditionally recited or agreed to uphold as a basic tenet of their practice, is believed to have been penned about 400 BCE by the Greek physician Hippocrates, known as the â€Å"Father of Medicine.† The oath includes promises not to provide deadly medicine to any one if asked or even suggest such a course of action, and to never cause any patient harm. In the US, prohibitions against intentionally aiding in the death of another date back to the country’s formation. Early American statutes outlawed both suicide and assisted sui cide. In the early 1900s, a physician’s grim decision brought euthanasia to the forefront of public debate. On November 12, 1915, a badly deformed child was born to Anna Bollinger. Her doctor conferred with the hospital’s chief of staff, Dr. Harry J. Haiselden, who advised against performing surgery to save the child. Five days later, the baby girl died, and the case and Dr. Haiselden’s decision were widely debated. During the 1930s, widespread distress caused by the Great Depression and its accompanying economic turbulence led to a spike in suicide rates and discussions of euthanasia and a right to self-determination over end-of-life matters. Public opinion polls revealed a growing belief that euthanasia was acceptable under certain circumstances. While it seemed that public support for legalizing euthanasia was coalescing, World War II broke out and the world recoiled in horror as news of Nazi death camps and the calculated mass extermination of vulnerable members of society made international headlines. Such atrocities dampened support for any form of legalized assistance in initiating another’s death. For several decades, discussions of euthanasia simmered largely in the background. In 1976, the tragic case of twenty-one year old Karen Ann Quinlan once again moved the euthanasia debate to national headlines. After consuming alcohol and prescription drugs at a party, Quinlan lost consciousness and ceased breathing. Quinlan was rushed to the hospital, where doctors declared that she was in a â€Å"persistent  vegetative state,† with full recovery unlikely. Her adoptive parents fought a year-long legal battle for rights to make the final decision to remove her respirator, thereby likely ensuring the end of her life. Although the New Jersey Supreme Court ultimately ruled in favor of the Quinlan family, Karen continued breathing naturally after her respirator was removed for nearly a decade, until she finally succumbed to complications from pneumonia. In 1980, right to die advocate Derek Humphry formed the Hemlock Society, a grassroots organization that has worked to advance euthanasia legislation. In addition, growing consensus for patients’ rights, including the right to refuse medical care—and even life-sustaining care—refocused attention on the right to die m ovement. Over the next several decades, public support for autonomy in end of life decision making has increased, with several states enacting legislation that recognizes living wills, or a legal document in which a person expresses his or her wishes regarding life prolonging medical treatments, including the withdrawal or refusal of life-sustaining medical treatment. Euthanasia Today The history of euthanasia in the US has been marked by several significant cases. The Quinlan case, although decided by a state supreme court, led to the advent of formal ethics committees in hospitals, nursing homes and hospices that provide support in complying with a patient’s advanced health care directives, or written instructions to family members and health care professionals about end of life care. In 1990, the US Supreme Court first ruled on the right to die movement in Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health. A car accident left Nancy Cruzan permanently unconscious and her parents requested that her feeding tube be withdrawn. After years of continuous care, most of the costs for Cruzan’s hospitalization were being paid by the State of Missouri. Although a Missouri district court granted the Cruzan family’s request to remove the tube, the director of the Missouri Department of Health took the case on appeal to the Missouri Supreme Court, arguin g for clear proof of Nancy Cruzan’s end of life wishes. The case went before the US Supreme Court, which ruled that a competent person has a constitutionally protected right to refuse any medical treatment, although states have a right to insist on clear and convincing evidence as to a patient’s wishes. In this case, there